Over the years

Over the years

*Dr.M.Harikrishnan
PG.Scholar, Dept. of Agadatantra, Govt.AVC, Tvpm

     Father of Ayurveda, Lord Brahma had authored the first ever document on this universal science compiling the various aspects which were orally or verbally passed on to the succeeding generations till then. It was the vast ever text written on Ayurveda comprising of one lakh verses. Agadatantra or Damstra Chikitsa had occupied a place among eight branches of Ayurveda. Envenomation to humans and animals from various members of animal kingdom, poisoning due to some plant species ( also metals and minerals) homicidal poisoning, toxic substances applied over weapons used in warfare, adulterated ( with toxic material  or mixtures of non-toxic unfavorable substances) food material, costumes, cosmetics and all other routine articles used by subjects posted in higher cadres like king etc. were the principal coverage entities for this stream of Ayurveda. 


        Sage Charaka dedicated one chapter in chikitsa sthana for this branch which he called as Visha Gara Vairodhika Prasamanam. A unique treatment sequence called Chaturvimsati Upakrama containing twenty four modules was indicated by Acharya Charaka as a part of Agadatantra.  This included Panchakarma therapies like emesis, purgation etc. also citing their stage of implementation. Some measures like nasya, anjana occupied astronomical significance as they were applied for saving life or restoration of consciousness. Though Charaka Samhita contained only chapter on visha chikitsa, it had the ingredients for a general practitioner to materialize Agadatantra. 
    
     Sage Susruta who was earlier to Charaka had initialized textual Agadatantra exclusively through Kalpasthana of Susruta  Samhita. Father of Surgery  was actually the founder of a tradition which allotted individual chapters to diagnosis and treatment of snake bite apart from  elaborating on spider bite, harmful arthropods, rodent bite etc. Susruta’s research methodology only should have prompted him to discuss vividly on food toxicology. Clinically active practitioners of Ayurveda will never cease to express their sincere gratitude to sage Susruta for introducing the identity of Agadatantra – Vilwadi Gutika.  
    
      Acharya Vriddha Vagbhata once again established that he is also a specialist with no compromise on individuality, for which the chapter on Vishopadrava chikitsa in Uttarasthana is a standing example.  Dalhana and Indu occupy the first place among the later scientists of Ayurveda due to their analytical thinking and sincere explanation for some of the prescriptions of Susruta and Vagbhata respectively. They brought many ideas for implementation of formulations mentioned in main texts, for example, the use of Dushivishari agada in visha vega chikitsa, explained by Dalhana. 
   
      In this Bharata Desa, there was a parallel development of Agadatantra through Siddha tradition of medicine, south of Vindhyas. New plants native to siddha bhoomi (south India) were introduced into visha chikitsa. South and South western tip of India occupied by western ghats witnessed a new evolution of Agadatantra through Ashtavaidya ( eight physicians) of Kerala. From tenth century A.D to early 20th century A.D, there has been no stopping for practice and compilation of works on visha chikitsa in Kerala. Even the influence of modern medicine could not prevent common man from visiting a visha vaidya for emergency situations. Prayoga samucchaya, Visha Narayaneeyam, Lakshanamrutam, Kriya Kaumudi, Visha Jyotsnika etc. are some of the numerous Malayalam texts on Agadatantra. Special treatment procedures like Dhara, anjana, Oothuprayoga and unique formulations like taruna bhaskara gutika, Neelikaranjadi kashaya etc. are some of the invaluable contributions of these texts. 
    
     In spite of these positive happenings the last five decades has seen a steady decline of practice of Agadatantra. The actual reason has to be the attitude of current generation(dismissing the science as being irrelevant to present day) rather than putting the blame on western influence and urbanization. At present, Agadatantra is remembered only through drugs like Vilwadi gutika and Dushivishari gutika. Instances of poisonous bite is confined to only a few geographical locations and that adds to the issue. Modern era is also going through a rapid upsurge of new diseases with high morbidity or mortality ( infections like swine flu etc.) due to unwholesome contemporary life style. At this juncture, the drive should be to find promising solutions for challenging diseases through Agadatantra rather than the compulsive force to make this science stay alive.


*The Author won the 'Best  Seminar Paper Award'  of 'Nirvisha 2009', national seminar on Agadatantra

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How safe is our food?

How safe is our food?

*Dr.E.Anu Sankar
PG.Scholar, Dept. of Agadatantra, Govt.AVC, Tvpm

Food is the most basic of necessities. Ayurveda mention it as one of the tristhoona that sustain life. The close relationship between food, life, and health has been amply stressed in the vedic texts.  Discussing the role of food Caraka opines that “aahaara sambhavam vastu rogaashcaahaara sambhava:”.Body and diseases are the products of food; the wholesomeness and unwholesomeness of food are the causes of health and diseases respectively.   He has elaborated the various aspects regarding consumption of food under aahaara vidhi viseshhayatanani, which can be put under 5 main headings.

1.       What food?

2.       When to eat?

3.       How much food?

4.       How many times?

5.       How to take food?

What food?

                In the book ‘Defense of food’ author Michael Pollen quotes that “the chronic diseases that now kill most of us can be traced directly to the industrialization of our food”.

The oral route is a major site of entry into the body for many toxic compounds. Food additives, food toxins, licking or rubbing, and airborne particles excluded from passage to the alveoli and returned to the glottis are among potential avenues for accidental ingestion.

Humans have adapted to a multitude of food around the world. Food allergy and food poisoning are two common problems nowadays. The different food combinations and interaction between exogenous and endogenous food components exert antagonistic effects. This has been explained as the viruddha concept in Ayurveda. Along with normal food intake humans are constantly exposed to a number of chemicals that are foreign to their bodies, like the pesticides, insecticides, additives etc. irrespective of whether they have nutritive value these compounds referred to as xenobiotics are also subjected to metabolic transformations. They interfere with the normal metabolic pathways resulting in toxic actions. These chemicals involve in the induction of new enzymes or modification of pre-existing enzymes to deal with the new substrate and results in the gradual elimination of genetic lines incapable of making adjustments. Food safety therefore does not refer to food itself but also to the person consuming it.

                Pesticides get mixed with air, water, soil and food materials to affect the human body causing acute and chronic cumulative toxicity by virtue of the pesticide residue resulting in conditions like carcinoma, autism, etc.

                For centuries, food additives have been used for flavoring, coloring, and extension of the useful shelf - life of food, as well as the promotion of food safety. Sensitivity to food additives is a potential adverse response in patients with sensitivity to multiple, unrelated foods and with negative diagnostic workups for food protein allergies.

Food adulteration is another age old problem. Food adulterants are cheap substitutes that resemble the parent food compound. Mixing, substitution, concealing the quality all comes under the purview of adulteration. Some of the adulterants are injurious to health, even resulting in death.

Metal contaminants such as lead, mercury, arsenic, and cadmium come from factory emissions, mining operations, and metal - containing industrial products used in food production. They tend to accumulate in the food chain, later enter the body and act as poisonous interferences to enzyme system and metabolism to create detriment to health. Heavy metal overload can result in complications like vascular blockade, osteoporosis, etc.

When to take food?

One can eat the best food and take the most well balanced nutritional supplement, but if cannot digest and absorb these will suffer from malnutrition and less than optimal health. Hence food should be taken only after digestion of previous meal and during aahaarakaala.

                Unfortunately what we practice today is samashana, vishamaashana and adhyashana that lead to death and other ailments. Toxins from food and its digestive byproducts can enter the bloodstream when digestion is poor and once these settle into the tissues will create immediate disease state.

How much food?

 We must not only be concerned with what is required in a diet, but with what is actually consumed. We should also be equally concerned with the problems caused by an excess of a food component as we are with the problems caused by the deficiency of an essential nutrient. Very high nutrient intake may exceed the metabolic capacity of the organism causing pathological effects and deterioration of health. In considering the physiological effects of food components, it should be noted that these effects are always related to the level of their intake. A useful concept is that for every food component, there are three ranges of intake: one associated with physiological inertness, a second with physiological function or benefit, and the third with potential hazard. Hence consume food as shaastraas advocate. Annena kuksher dwaavamsham paanenekam prapoorayet;aashrayam pavanaadeenaam caturtham avaseshayet. After dividing the stomach into four quadrants, two fourth the capacity should be filled with food, one fourth with water and the remaining should be left vacant for movement of vaata.

How many times?

Ayurveda mentions two aahaara kaalaa for food consumption. Binge eating can disrupt natural rhythm of body.

How to take food?

Even though shaastraas give general rules for taking food, modern man has little time to spare for food from his busy and hectic work schedule. The usual stress can trigger the body to release excessive amount of cortisol, the craving hormone that makes one reach for comfort foods high in fats and sugars.

One should also have an assessment about the health and needs of self along with presence of mind while eating. Because most of what we are consuming today is not food and how we are consuming it-in the car, in front of television and increasingly all alone- is not really eating. Instead of food we are consuming edible food like substances-no longer the products of nature but of food science. Here one is not only eating more but burning less. All these practices render our food and food habits unsafe.

How to make food safe?-preventive aspect

         i.            Treatises mentions that prepared food should be sprinkled with vishaghna oushadha before consumption. This is to wardoff the ill effects due to poisoning as the ordinary doshahara dravyaas may not be sufficient to destroy its effects. When compared with other diseases, visha requires immediate treatment.

       ii.            Always eat freshly prepared food.

      iii.            Avoid unhealthy food practices.

     iv.            Avoid substances that are distinctly harmful to the body.

       v.            Overcome stressful situations as stress can derange metabolism and deteriorate health.

Managing morbidity-curative aspect

                Food that becomes viruddha are transformed into visha and gara in a long run. The principles of toxicology can be easily applied in general practice. The shodhana procedures and pathyaahaara mentioned in gara cikitsa can be resorted to.

                The entire concept of toxicity needs to be evaluated from the viewpoint of a risk or benefit concept associated with the consumption of any given material. Infact, Paracelsus over 400 years ago pointed out that “all substances are poisonous; there is none which is not a poison. The right dose differentiates a poison and a remedy.”

 *The Author won the 'Best Paper presenter Award'  of 'Nirvisha 2009', national seminar on Agadatantra

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Snakes-their classification and Distribution in India

Snakes-their classification and Distribution in India

E.Kunhikrishnan

Sr.Lecturer, Department of zoology

H.H.Maharaja University College

Thiruvananthapuram

INTRODUCTION

There are about 2920 species of snakes belonging to 445 genera in the world; under 18 families

About 200 species are found in India.The maximum diversity of snakes in India is in the Western Ghatsand in the  North east. 

The snakes are commonly divided in to two infraorders , Alethinophidia with  15 families and  Infraorder Scolecophidia with 3 families 

The pattern of scale arrangement and the configuration of scales provide the most useful basis for identification. The  first step in learning to use dichotomous keys for snake identification is to become acquainted with the typical "scalation".

The scales on a snake's body are either "smooth" or "keeled". A keeled scale has a ridge down the middle of the scale. A smooth scale has no ridge. 

The cloacal opening is covered with a scale, the anal, which may be single or divided into 2 parts. 

Anatomical features of the skull is important. The change in size and position of the quadrate, the vestiges of the pelvis, the structure and the position of fangs etc also differ from group to group. The arrangement of the scales on the head, viz.  nasal, internasal, prefrontal, frontal, supraoccular, parietal,rostrla, loreal, upperlabials, lowerlabials, post ocular and temporal help in distinguishing family, genera and species. The number of scales in the dorsal row is also taken in to consideration.

NONPOISONOUS SNAKES

Family  Typhlopidae. Scales uniform.  Typhlops consists of two Genera and 21 species (Indian sub-continent). They are tiny worm-like burrowing snakes which are non-poisonous. There are at least 14 species in India , five occurring in Kerala.

Family  Uropeltidae   consist of burrowing snakes seen only in  peninsular India and Sri Lanka. Total  47 species in the world  of which 33 endemic to the Peninsular India. A group of great interest. 

Family Boidae   Include the biggest snakes in the world-boas and pythons  

There are two species of pythons in India, Python molurus - Indian Rock python and P. reticulatus-Nicobar Islands 

Genus Eryx consists of three species in India E.conicus, E.johnii and E. whitekeri 

Family Dipsadidae  Contain  some common snakes Genus like Lycodon.( Wolf snakes ). Misidentification of these harmless snakes creates problems because of their superficial resemblance to the deadly Kraits.

Eight species in India. Three in south India, Lycodon travancoricus (Travancore wolf snake), L. striatus  (barred wolf snake )and L. aulicus  (Common wolf snake )

Genus  Oligodon (Kukri Snakes) can be distinguished by peculiarand  prominat markings and pattern  on the head. 18 species in the Indian region; seven species present in south India, others in North east and in eastern Himalayas 

Genus  Amphiesma .Eight species. Three in Western ghats and south India, A. stolata (stripped keel back), A. beddome (Beddome's keelback) and A. monticola (green western keelback).

Genus Dendrelaphis -(Tree snakes) seven species in India. Five in south India, D. pictus (painted bronze back tree snake) D. grandoculis (large eyed brown tree snake)  D. bifrenalis( Boulenger's bronzeback treesnake ) D caudolineata (Stripetailed bronzeback tree snake )and  D. tristis (common bronzeback treesnake )

Family Colubridae includes well over half of all snake species on earth. Colubrid species are found on every continent, except Antarctica. There are 1938 species under 304 genera the world over. (All other snake species put together is about 980). While most colubrids are non-venomous (or have venom that isn't known to be harmful to humans) and are normally harmless, a few groups, such as genus Boiga, can produce medically significant bites, while the boomslang and the twig snakes have caused human fatalities. The venom is a modified form of saliva, secreted by glands in the upper jaw. The venom-injecting fangs of colubrids are termed opisthoglyphous, meaning that the small, grooved fangs are located in the back of the upper jaw, unlike those of vipers and elapids, which are located in the front. Even non-venomous colubrids often have fangs in this position, and use them to puncture egg-shells or similar food. Classification of Colubridae based mainly on dentition and other features. There are 3 sections. They are 1 Aglypha with solid ungrooved teeth, 2 Opisthoglypha with teeth are grooved and connected to poison-glands, 3 Proteroglypha with canaliculated anterior maxillary teeth (front-teethed) they are very poisonous. 

Aglyphous ("lacking grooves") snakes have no specialized teeth - each tooth is more or less the same in shape and often in size. When some teeth are larger than others, as is sometimes the case in bird eaters such as Corralus, the enlarged teeth are merely "scaled up", and are otherwise identical. Aglyphous snakes are non-venomous, and can be found in numerous families. Opisthoglyphous ("rearward grooves") snakes are similar to aglyphous snakes, but possess weak venom, which is injected by means of a pair of enlarged teeth at the back of the maxillae. These "fangs" typically point backwards rather than straight down, possess a groove which channels venom into the prey, and are located roughly halfway back in the mouth, which has led to the vernacular name of "rear-fanged snakes". This combination of features means that, in order to envenomate prey, the snake must bite it, move the prey into the back of the mouth, then penetrate it with the grooved fangs, which allow venom secreted into the mouth to seep into the prey. This presents difficulties with large prey items, though they can quickly move smaller prey (or a human handler's finger) into position. While the venom of most opisthoglyphous snakes is so weak that it does not affect humans, a few are capable of delivering harmful or even fatal bites. Notably, herpetologists Karl Schmidtt and Mertens were killed by aboomslang and theletornis, respectively, after each underestimated the effects of the bite and failed to seek medical help 

Proteroglyphous ("forward grooved") snakes have a much more sophisticated venom delivery method. These snakes have shortened their maxillae, which bears few teeth except for a substantially enlarged "fang" located at the front of the mouth. Unlike the opisthoglyphous snakes, the fangs of proteroglyphs point downwards and completely fold around the venom channel, forming a hollow needle with which to inject their venom more effectively. However, because the fangs are only a fraction of an inch long in even the largest species (and often much shorter) these snakes must still hang on, at least momentarily, as they inject the venom. The venom of proteroglyphs is the most toxic of all snakes, and among the most toxic natural substances in the world. This form of dentition is unique to elapids.

A few species of spitting cobras have modified opening at the tip of the fang which allows them to spray venom at an attacker's eyes. 

Subfamily  Colubrinae, is with over 100 genera and roughly 650 species in the world 

Genus  Elaphe -Nine species in Indian region but only one(Elaphe helena)--trinket snake) present in south India others are  in north east. 

Genus Chrysopelea -flying snakes- only two species, Chrysopelea ornata in the Western Ghats , Orissa, Bengal and the other species in Narcondam, Andaman islands. 

Genus Ahaetulla -vine snakes-6 species 4present in south India . A. nasutus is the  common vine snake. 

Family Homalapsidae 

Subfamily Boiginae –

Genus Boiga- Cat snakes ; 11 species  4 in south India; others in Assam and in northeast 

Genus Enhydris    include the Water snakes Three species, only two in south india.

POISONOUS SNAKES

Family Elaphidae: cobras; kraits; mambas; coral snakes; Australian taipan and tiger snakes 

Genus Bungarus (Kraits ) Sevenspecies  in Indian subcontinent. Only one in south India -B. caeruleus(Common krait). One of the most deadliest snake and is one of the "big four" snakes in India. Neurotoxicand quickly induces muscle paralysis. Clinically, their venom contains pre-synaptic neurotoxins. 

Genus Callophis (Coral snakes ) As the name indicates, beautifully coloured snakes. Five species in south Indian forests.  Venom: Uncertain possibly could have an adverse effect on human beings. However due to the paucity of venom found within this snake little scientific study has been conducted. However since it belongs to the family Elaphidae and nearly all Elaphids are venomous immediate medical assistance should be sought if a bitten by this snake. 

Genus Naja -Only one species but three sub species. Naja naja naja- Binocellate or spectacled cobra (common cobra) present throughout India.  Naja naja kaouthia --Monocellate /Monocled or Bengal cobra—Bengal, Assam and in Andaman. Naja naja oxiana  - black cobra -North  west region.

Genus Ophiophagus . Only one species in Asia - Ophiophagus hannah,  the king cobra. The largest poisonous snake.

Subfamily Hydrophinae Sea snakes  - 20 species -13 present in the west coast

Family Viperidae. Vipers (Latin vivus = alive + parere = bring forth meaning viviparous nature) consists of two Sub-families (Viperinae and Crotalinae)- In the family total there are 224 species in 32 genera distributed in Americas, Africa and Eurasia. Seven Genera and 31 species in the area comprising Indian sub-continent China and Malay Peninsula. They are one of the most widely distributed snakes in the world. 

Subfamily - Viperinae . 

Genus Vipera (Daboia) -two species  V. lebetina (Blunt nosed viper-laventine viper) Kashmir.  V. russeli -Russel’s viper – throughout India  including  High altitude like  Munnar.  A large triangular head help in identification. Its body is stout and cylindrical. Venom extremely lethal causes heavy internal haemorrhages. Death is caused by heavy blood loss due to internal bleeding.  

Echis carinatus  A small venomous snake of arid regions . Has a short snout and rounded cheeks. Often light brown in colour with a lateral row of dark brown outlined mottles. Lethally venomous. Its venom destroys red blood cells, the walls of arteries and reduces blood pressure

Subfamily Crotalinae - Pit Vipers 

Genus Agkistrodon (Hypnale)- 2 species one in Himalayas other in south  (Hypnale hypnale) 

Genus Trimeresurus - 14 species - 4 in south Indian  forests  -T macrolepis( large scaled pit viper) 

T malabaricus (Malabar pit viper ), T strigatus (Horse shoe pit viper) , T. gramineus (bamboo pit viper )

Of the roughly 725 species of venomous snakes worldwide, only 250 are able to kill a human with one bite. In south India cobra, viper, king cobra and krait only are coming in this category.

Photos by Dr.Pradeep Raj R.S.

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